Water is essential for life, health and human dignity. In extreme situations, there may not be sufficient water available to meet basic needs, and in these cases supplying a survival level of safe drinking water is of critical importance. In most cases, the main health problems are caused by poor hygiene due to insufficient water and by the consumption of contaminated water.

Key indicators (to be read in conjunction with the guidance notes)

Guidance notes

1. Needs: the quantities of water needed for domestic use may vary according to the climate, the sanitation facilities available, people's normal habits, their religious and cultural practices, the food they cook, the clothes they wear, and so on. Water consumption generally increases the nearer the water source is to the dwelling.

See Appendix 2 for guidance on minimum water quantities needed for institutions and other uses.

2. Water source selection: the factors that need to be taken into account are the availability and sustainability of a sufficient quantity of water; whether water treatment is required and, if so, the feasibility of this; the availability of the time, technology or funding required to develop a source; the proximity of the source to the affected population; and the existence of any social, political or legal factors concerning the source. Generally, groundwater sources are preferable as they require less treatment, especially gravity-flow supplies from springs, which require no pumping. Disasters often require a combination of approaches and sources in the initial phase. All sources need to be regularly monitored to avoid over-exploitation.

3. Measurement: measuring solely the volume of water pumped into the reticulation system or the time a handpump is in operation will not give an accurate indication of individual consumption. Household surveys, observation and community discussion groups are a more effective method of collecting data on water use and consumption.

4. Quality and quantity: in many emergency situations, water-related disease transmission is due as much to insufficient water for personal and domestic hygiene as to contaminated water supplies. Until minimum standards for both quantity and quality are met, the priority should be to provide equitable access to an adequate quantity of water even if it is of intermediate quality, rather than to provide an inadequate quantity of water that meets the minimum quality standard. It should be taken into account that people living with HIV/AIDS need extra water for drinking and personal hygiene. Particular attention should be paid to ensuring that the water requirements of livestock and crops are met, especially in drought situations where lives and livelihoods are dependent on these (see Appendix 2).

5. Coverage: in the initial phase of a response the first priority is to meet the urgent survival needs of all the affected population. People affected by an emergency have a significantly increased vulnerability to disease and therefore the indicators should be reached even if they are higher than the norms of the affected or host population. In such situations it is recommended that agencies plan programmes to raise the levels of water and sanitation facilities of the host population also, to avoid provoking animosity.

6. Maximum numbers of people per water source: the number of people per source depends on the yield and availability of water at each source. For example, taps often function only at certain times of day and handpumps and wells may not give constant water if there is a low recharge rate. The rough guidelines (for when water is constantly available) are:

These guidelines assume that the water point is accessible for approximately eight hours a day only; if access is greater than this, people can collect more than the 15 litres per day minimum requirement. These targets must be used with caution, as reaching them does not necessarily guarantee a minimum quantity of water or equitable access.

7. Queuing time: excessive queuing times are indicators of insufficient water availability (either due to an inadequate number of water points or inadequate yields of water points). The potential negative results of excessive queuing times are: 1) reduced per capita water consumption; 2) increased consumption from unprotected surface sources; and 3) reduced time for water collectors to tend to other essential survival tasks.

8. Access and equity: even if a sufficient quantity of water is available to meet minimum needs, additional measures may be needed to ensure that access is equitable for all groups. Water points should be located in areas that are accessible to all regardless of e.g. sex or ethnicity. Some handpumps and water carrying containers may need to be designed or adapted for use by people living with HIV/AIDS, older and disabled people and children. In urban situations, it may be necessary to supply water into individual buildings to ensure that toilets continue to function. In situations where water is rationed or pumped at given times, this should be planned in consultation with the users. Times should be set which are convenient and safe for women and others who have responsibility for collecting water, and all users should be fully informed of when and where water is available.